Page 49 - A Brief History of Time - Stephen Hawking

A Brief History of Time - Stephen Hawking... Chapter 6
the body that has collapsed must be lost when a black hole is formed, because afterward all we can possibly measure
about the body is its mass and rate of rotation. The significance of this will be seen in the next chapter.

Black holes are one of only a fairly small number of cases in the history of science in which a theory was developed in
great detail as a mathematical model before there was any evidence from observations that it was correct. Indeed, this
used to be the main argument of opponents of black holes: how could one believe in objects for which the only
evidence was calculations based on the dubious theory of general relativity? In 1963, however, Maarten Schmidt, an
astronomer at the Palomar Observatory in California, measured the red shift of a faint starlike object in the direction of
the source of radio waves called 3C273 (that is, source number 273 in the third Cambridge catalogue of radio sources).
He found it was too large to be caused by a gravitational field: if it had been a gravitational red shift, the object would
have to be so massive and so near to us that it would disturb the orbits of planets in the Solar System. This suggested
that the red shift was instead caused by the expansion of the universe, which, in turn, meant that the object was a very
long distance away. And to be visible at such a great distance, the object must be very bright, must, in other words, be
emitting a huge amount of energy. The only mechanism that people could think of that would produce such large
quantities of energy seemed to be the gravitational collapse not just of a star but of a whole central region of a galaxy. A
number of other similar “quasi-stellar objects,” or quasars, have been discovered, all with large red shifts. But they are
all too far away and therefore too difficult to observe to provide conclusive evidence of black holes.

Further encouragement for the existence of black holes came in 1967 with the discovery by a research student at
Cambridge, Jocelyn Bell-Burnell, of objects in the sky that were emitting regular pulses of radio waves. At first Bell and
her supervisor, Antony Hewish, thought they might have made contact with an alien civilization in the galaxy! Indeed, at
the seminar at which they announced their discovery, I remember that they called the first four sources to be found
LGM 1 – 4, LGM standing for “Little Green Men.” In the end, however, they and everyone else came to the less
romantic conclusion that these objects, which were given the name pulsars, were in fact rotating neutron stars that were
emitting pulses of radio waves because of a complicated interaction between their magnetic fields and surrounding
matter. This was bad news for writers of space westerns, but very hopeful for the small number of us who believed in
black holes at that time: it was the first positive evidence that neutron stars existed. A neutron star has a radius of about
ten miles, only a few times the critical radius at which a star becomes a black hole. If a star could collapse to such a
small size, it is not unreasonable to expect that other stars could collapse to even smaller size and become black holes.

How could we hope to detect a black hole, as by its very definition it does not emit any light? It might seem a bit like
looking for a black cat in a coal cellar. Fortunately, there is a way. As John Michell pointed out in his pioneering paper in
1783, a black hole still exerts a gravitational fierce on nearby objects. Astronomers have observed many systems in
which two stars orbit around each other, attracted toward each other by gravity. They also observe systems in which
there is only one visible star that is orbiting around some unseen companion. One cannot, of course, immediately
conclude that the companion is a black hole: it might merely be a star that is too faint to be seen. However, some of
these systems, like the one called Cygnus X-1 Figure 6:2, are also strong sources of X-rays.

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