Page 24 - A Brief History of Time - Stephen Hawking

A Brief History of Time - Stephen Hawking... Chapter 3
the waves we receive will be the same as the wavelength at which they are emitted (the gravitational field of the
galaxy will not be large enough to have a significant effect). Suppose now that the source starts moving toward
us. When the source emits the next wave crest it will be nearer to us, so the distance between wave crests will
be smaller than when the star was stationary. This means that the wavelength of the waves we receive is
shorter than when the star was stationary. Correspondingly, if the source is moving away from us, the
wavelength of the waves we receive will be longer. In the case of light, therefore, means that stars moving
away from us will have their spectra shifted toward the red end of the spectrum (red-shifted) and those moving
toward us will have their spectra blue-shifted. This relationship between wavelength and speed, which is called
the Doppler effect, is an everyday experience. Listen to a car passing on the road: as the car is approaching, its
engine sounds at a higher pitch (corresponding to a shorter wavelength and higher frequency of sound waves),
and when it passes and goes away, it sounds at a lower pitch. The behavior of light or radio waves is similar.
Indeed, the police make use of the Doppler effect to measure the speed of cars by measuring the wavelength
of pulses of radio waves reflected off them.

ln the years following his proof of the existence of other galaxies, Rubble spent his time cataloging their
distances and observing their spectra. At that time most people expected the galaxies to be moving around
quite randomly, and so expected to find as many blue-shifted spectra as red-shifted ones. It was quite a
surprise, therefore, to find that most galaxies appeared red-shifted: nearly all were moving away from us! More
surprising still was the finding that Hubble published in 1929: even the size of a galaxy’s red shift is not random,
but is directly proportional to the galaxy’s distance from us. Or, in other words, the farther a galaxy is, the faster
it is moving away! And that meant that the universe could not be static, as everyone previously had thought, is
in fact expanding; the distance between the different galaxies is changing all the time.

The discovery that the universe is expanding was one of the great intellectual revolutions of the twentieth
century. With hindsight, it is easy wonder why no one had thought of it before. Newton, and others should have
realized that a static universe would soon start to contract under the influence of gravity. But suppose instead
that the universe is expanding. If it was expanding fairly slowly, the force of gravity would cause it eventually to
stop expanding and then to start contracting. However, if it was expanding at more than a certain critical rate,
gravity would never be strong enough to stop it, and the universe would continue to expand forever. This is a bit
like what happens when one fires a rocket upward from the surface of the earth. If it has a fairly low speed,
gravity will eventually stop the rocket and it will start falling back. On the other hand, if the rocket has more than
a certain critical speed (about seven miles per second), gravity will not be strong enough to pull it back, so it will
keep going away from the earth forever. This behavior of the universe could have been predicted from
Newton’s theory of gravity at any time in the nineteenth, the eighteenth, or even the late seventeenth century.
Yet so strong was the belief in a static universe that it persisted into the early twentieth century. Even Einstein,
when he formulated the general theory of relativity in 1915, was so sure that the universe had to be static that
he modified his theory to make this possible, introducing a so-called cosmological constant into his equations.
Einstein introduced a new “antigravity” force, which, unlike other forces, did not come from any particular
source but was built into the very fabric of space-time. He claimed that space-time had an inbuilt tendency to
expand, and this could be made to balance exactly the attraction of all the matter in the universe, so that a
static universe would result. Only one man, it seems, was willing to take general relativity at face value, and
while Einstein and other physicists were looking for ways of avoiding general relativity’s prediction of a
nonstatic universe, the Russian physicist and mathematician Alexander Friedmann instead set about explaining
it.

Friedmann made two very simple assumptions about the universe: that the universe looks identical in
whichever direction we look, and that this would also be true if we were observing the universe from anywhere
else. From these two ideas alone, Friedmann showed that we should not expect the universe to be static. In
fact, in 1922, several years before Edwin Hubble’s discovery, Friedmann predicted exactly what Hubble found!

The assumption that the universe looks the same in every direction is clearly not true in reality. For example, as
we have seen, the other stars in our galaxy form a distinct band of light across the night sky, called the Milky
Way. But if we look at distant galaxies, there seems to be more or less the same number of them. So the
universe does seem to be roughly the same in every direction, provided one views it on a large scale compared
to the distance between galaxies, and ignores the differences on small scales. For a long time, this was
sufficient justification for Friedmann’s assumption – as a rough approximation to the real universe. But more
recently a lucky accident uncovered the fact that Friedmann’s assumption is in fact a remarkably accurate

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